Tamil Eelam Issue in Indian Politics

- governing From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia For the fluental magazine, seeThe Politic. For early on(a) exercises, seePolitics (disambiguation). Politics(fromGreekpolitikosof, for, or relating to citizens) is theartorscienceof influencing people on a civic, or singular level, when on that point be more than 2 people involved. Modern policy-making discourse focuses on democracy and the family between people and politics. It is thought of as the way we choose government officials and sword decisions about public policy. 1 * editEtymology European Parliament The wordpoliticscomes from theGreekword (politika), modeled onAristotles affairs of the city, the name of his volume on governing and governments, which was rendered in English in the mid-15th century as Latinized Polettiques. 2Thus it became politics inMiddle Englishc. 1520s (see theConcise Oxford Dictionary). The singularpolitic firstborn attested in English 1430 and comes fromMiddle Frenchpolitique, in turn fro mLatinpoliticus,3which is thelatinisationof the Greek politikos), meaning amongst others of, for, or relating to citizens, civil, civic, be to the state,4in turn from (polites), citizen5and that from (polis), city. 6 - editHistory The history of politics is reflected in the institution and development, and economics of the institutions ofgovernment. editThe state Main article accede (polity) Sun Tzu The origin of thestateis to be found in the development of theart of warf ar.historically speaking, all policy-making communities of the modern type owe their existence to successful warf ar. 7 Kings, emperors and other types of monarchs in gentle homosexualy countries including China and Japan, were considered divine. Of the institutions that ruled states, that ofkingshipstood at the forefront until the French Revolution put an end to the divine rightly of kings. Nevertheless, the monarchy is among the longest-lasting semipolitical institutions, dating as first as 2100 BC in S umeria8to the 21st Century AD British Monarchy.Kingship becomes an institution through heredity. The king often, unconstipated inabsolute monarchies, ruled his dry lower with the aid of an elite multitude of advisors, aCouncilwithout which he could not maintain power. As these advisors, and others outside the monarchy negotiated for power,constitutional monarchiesemerged, which may be considered the germ ofconstitutional government. citation needed presbyopic before the council became a bulwark of democracy, it rendered invaluable aid to the institution of kingship bycitation needed 1.Preserving the institution of kingship through heredity. 2. Preserving the traditions of the social order. 3. Being able to withstand criticism as an impersonal authority. 4. Being able to manage a niftyer deal of knowledge and action than a single person such as the king. The superlative of the kings subordinates, theearls,archdukesanddukesin England and Scotland, thedukesandcountsin the Contin ent, always sat as a right on the Council. A conqueror wages war upon the vanquished for vengeance or for uncase exclusively an established kingdom exactstri howevere.One of the functions of the Council is to keep the coffers of the king full. Another is the satisfaction of phalanx serviceand the establishment oflordshipsby the king to satisfy the task of amass taxes and soldiers. 9 editThe state and property Propertyis the right vested on the individualistic or a group of people to enjoy the benefits of an object be it material or intellectual. A right is a power enforced by public trust. Sometimes it happens that the exercise of a right is opposed to public trust.Nevertheless, a right is really an institution brought around by public trust, past, present or future. The growth of knowledge is the key to the history of property as an institution. The more man becomes knowledgeable of an object be it physical or intellectual, the more it is appropriated. The appearance of the c ountry brought about the final stage in the evolution of property from wild purport to husbandry. In the presence of the earth, man sack up hold landed property. The call forth began granting lordships and ended up conferring property and with it cameinheritance.With landed property came rent and in the exchange of goods, profit, so that in modern times, the lord of the land of long ago becomes the landlord. If it is wrongly assumed that the value of land is always the same, then there is of course no evolution of property whatever. However, the price of land goes up with every increase in population benefitting the landlord. The landlordism of large land owners has been the most rewarded of all political services. In industry, the position of the landlord is less important unless in towns which nourish grown out of an industry, the fortunate landlord has reaped an enormous profit.Towards the latter part of the Middle Ages in Europe, two the State the State would use the inst rument ofconfiscationfor the first time to satisfy a debt and the Church the Church succeeded in acquiring immense quantities of land were allied against the village community to displace the small landlord and they were successful to the extent that to twenty-four hour period, the village has become the ideal of theindividualist, a place in which every man does what he wills with his own. The State has been the most important factor in the evolution of the institution of property be it public or snobbish. 10 editThe state and the justness formation As a primarily military institution, the State is implicated with theallegianceof its subjects viewing disloyalty andespionageas well as other sorts ofconspiraciesas detrimental to its theme security. Thus a leaps the impartiality oft actor. Criminal acts in general, breaking the peace and treason make up the whole, or at least part ofcriminal lawenforced by the State as distinguished fromthe law enforced by private individuals or by the state on behalf of private individuals.State justice has taken the place of clan, feudalistic, merchant and ecclesiastical justice due to its strength, skill and simplicity. One very striking evidence of the superiority of the royal judicatures over the feudal and popular courts in the matter of official skill is the fact that, until comparatively late in history, the royal courts alone kept written records of their proceedings. Thetrial by jurywas adopted by the Royal Courts, securing its popularity and making it a bulwark of liberty.By the time of theProtestant Reformation, with the separation of Church and State, in the most progressive countries, the State succeeded in dealing with the business of administering justice. 11 editThe state The making of laws was unknown to primitive societies. That most persistent of all patriarchal societies, theJewish, retains to a real extent its tribal law in theGentilecities of the West. This tribal law is the rudimentary idea of law as it presented itself to people in the patriarchal stage of society, it wascustomorobservancesanctioned by the approval and practice of ancestors. citation needed The state of affairs which existed in the 10th century, when every town had its own laws and nations ilk France, Germany, Spain and other countries had no national law until the end of the 18th century, was brought to an end by triad great agencies that helped to create the modern system of law and politycitation needed 1. RecordsFrom the early Middle Ages in Europe there come what ar called folk-laws and they appear exactly at the time when the patriarchal is becoming the State.They are due about universally to one cause the desire of the king to know the custom of his subjects. These are not legislation in the sense of law-making but statements or declarations of custom. They are drawn from a knowledge of the custom of the people. Unwritten custom changes imperceptibly but not the written. It is always possible to point to the exact text and set up what it says. Nevertheless, the written text can change by addition with every new edition. 2. law CourtsBy taking some general rule which seemed to be usual to all the communities and ignoring the differences, English common law was modeled after such a practice so that the law became common in all the districts of the kingdom. The reason why in the rest of Europe, there was no common law till centuries later is because the State in those countries did not get hold of the system of justice when England did. One of the shrewdest moves by which the English judges pushed their plan of making a common law was by limiting the verdict of the jury in every ase toquestions of fact. At first the jury used to give answers both on law and fact and being a purely local body, they followed local custom. A famous division came to pass the province of the judge and the province of the jury. 3. FictionsRecords and Law Courts were valuable in helping the p eople adapt to law-making but like Fictions, they were slow and imperfect. Though slowly, Fictions work because it is a well known fact that people will accept a change in the form of a fiction part they would resist it to the end if the fact is out in the open.British parliament Finally there is the homophile activity of laws or legislation. When progress and development is rapid, the hot method ofpolitical representationis adopted. This method does not originate in primitive society but in the State need for money and its use of an assembly to raise the same. From the town assembly, a national assembly and the progress of commerce sprangParliamentall over Europe around the end of the twelfth century but not entirely representative or homogeneous for the nobility and the clergy.The clergy had amassed a fortune in land, about one-fifth of all Christendom but at the time, in the 12th and 13th centuries, the Church was following a policy of isolation they adopted the rule ofceliba cyand cut themselves from domestic life they refused to plead in a secular court they refused to pay taxes to the State on the grounds that they had already paid it to thePope. Since the main object of the king in holding a national assembly was to collect money, the Church could not be left out and so they came to Parliament.The Church did not like it but in most cases they had to come. citation needed The medieval Parliament was complete when it represented all the states in the realm nobles, clergy, peasants and craftsmen but it was not a popular institution in general because it meanttaxation. Only by the strongest pressure of the vizor were Parliaments maintained during the first century of their existence and the best proof of this assertion lies in the fact that in those countries where the Crown was weak, Parliament ceased to exist.The notion that parliaments were the result of a democratic movement cannot be indorseed by historical facts. Originally, the representative s ide of Parliament was solely concerned with money representation in Parliament was a liability rather than a privilege. It is not uncommon that an institution created for one purpose begins to serve some other. battalion who were asked to contribute with large sums of money began topetition. Pretty soon, sessions in Parliament would turn into bargaining tables, the king granting petitions in exchange for money.However, there were two kinds of petitions, one private and the other public and it was from this last that laws were adopted orlegislationoriginated. The king as head of State could give orders to preserve territorial integrity but not until these royal enactments were combined with public petition that successful legislation ever took place. Even to the present day, this has always been the basis of all successful legislation public custom is adopted and enforced by the State. citation needed In the early days of political representation, themajoritydid not necessarily car ry the day and there was very little need for contestedelectionsbut by the beginning of the 15th century, a seat in Parliament was something to be cherished. Historically speaking, the dogma of the equality of man is the result of the adoption of the purely practical machinery of the majority but the adoption of the majority principle is as well as responsible for another institution of modern times theparty system.The party system is an elaborate piece of machinery that pits at least two political candidates against each other for the select of an electorate its advantage being equal representation interesting a large number of people in politics it provides effective criticism of the government in power and it affords an outlet for the ambition of a large number of wealthy and educated people guaranteeing a consistent policy in government. citation needed These three institutions political representation, majority rule and the party system are the basic components of modern poli tical machinery they are applicable to both central and local governments and are becoming by their adaptability ends in themselves rather than a machinery to achieve some purpose. 12 editThe state and the executive system The administration is one of the most difficult aspects of government.In the enactment and enforcement of laws, the victory of the State is complete but not so in regards to administration the reason being that it is easy to see the advantage of the enactment and enforcement of laws but not the administration of domestic, religious and business affairs which should be kept to a minimum by government. citation needed TheGerman Chancellery(Bundeskanzleramt) inBerlin Originally, the state was a military institution. For many years, it was just a territory ruled by a king who was surrounded by a small elite group of warriors and court officials and it was essentially rule by force over a larger mass of people.Slowly, however, the people gained political representatio n for none can really be state to be a member of the State without the right of having a voice in the direction of policy making. One of the basic functions of the State in regards to administration is maintaining peace and internal order it has no other excuse for interfering in the lives of its citizens. To maintain law and order the State develops authority ofcommunication. Historically, the kings thoroughfare was laid raven and maintained for the convenience of the royal armies not as an incentive tocommerce.In almost all countries, the State maintains the control of the means of communication and supernumerary freedoms such as those delineated in theFirst Amendment to the United States Constitutionare rather limited. The States original function of maintaining law and order within its borders gave rise to guardadministration which is a branch of the dispensation ofJusticebut on its preventive side, police jurisdiction has a special character of its own, which distinguishes it from ordinary judicial work.In thecurfew, the State shows early in history the importance of preventing disorder. In early days, next to maintaining law and order, the State was concerned with the raising ofrevenue. It was then useful to the State to establish astandardofweights and measuresso that value could be generally accepted and finally the State acquired amonopolyofcoinage. The regulation of labor by the State as one of its functions dates from the 15th century, whenthe Black Plaguekilled around half of the European population. citation needed The invariable policy of the State has always been to break down all intermediate authorities and to deal directly with the individual. This was the policy untilAdam SmithsThe Wealth of Nationswas published promoting a strong public reaction against State interference. By its own action, the State raised the issue of the misfortunate or the State relief of theindigent. The State, of course, did not create poverty but by destroying the chief agencies which dealt with t such as the village, the church and theguilds, it practically assumed full responsibility for the poor without exercising any power over it. The Great Poor Law Report of 1834 showed thatcommunismwas widespread in the rural areas of England. In newly developed countries such as thecoloniesof theBritish Empire, the State has refused to take responsibility for the poor and the relief of poverty, although the poor classes lean heavily towards State socialism. citation needed Taking into account the arguably significant powers of the State, it is only natural that in times of great crisis such as an overwhelming calamity the people should invoke general State aid. citation needed governmental representation has helped to shape State administration. When the voice of the individual can be heard, the danger of arbitrary interference by the State is greatly reduced. To that extent is the increase of State activity popular.There are no hard and nimble rules to limit State administration but it is a fallacy to believe that the State is the nation and what the State does is necessarily for the good of the nation. In the first place, even in modern times, the State and the nation are never identical. Even where universal suffrage prevails, the fact remains that an extension of State administration means an increased interference of some by others, limiting freedom of action. Even if it is admitted that State and nation are one and the same, it is sometimes difficult to admit that State administration is necessarily good.Finally, the modern indiscriminate advocacy of State administration conceals the fallacy that State officials must necessarily prove more effective in their action thanprivate attempt. Herein lies the basic difference betweenPublicandBusiness Administration the first deals with thepublic wealwhile the second deals basically inprofitbut both require a great deal ofeducationandethical conductto avoid the mishaps inher ent in the relationship not only relating tobusinessandlabourbut also the State and the people administrating itsgovernment. 13 editThe varieties of political experience The swearing of the oath of ratification of the treaty of Munster in 1648(1648) byGerard ter Borch. According to Aristotle, States are classified intomonarchies,aristocracies,timocracies,democracies,oligarchies, andtyrannies. Due to an increase in knowledge of the history of politics, this classification has been abandoned. Generally speaking, no form of government could be considered the absolute best, as it would have to be the perfect form under all hatful, for all people and in all ways.As an institution created by the human nature togovern society, it is vulnerable toabuse by people for their own gain, no matter what form of government a state utillises, thus posing that there is no best form of government. All States are varieties of a single type, the sovereign State. All theGreat Powersof the modern world r ule on the principle ofsovereignty. self-directed power may be vested on an individual as in anautocratic governmentor it may be vested on a group as in a constitutional government.Constitutionsare written documents that specify and limit the powers of the different branches of government. Although a Constitution is a written document, there is also an unwritten Constitution. The unwritten constitution is continually being written by the Legislative branch of government this is just one of those cases in which the nature of the circumstances determines the form of government that is most appropriate. Nevertheless, the written constitution is essential.England did set the fashion of written constitutions during theCivil Warbut after theRestorationabandoned them to be taken up later by theAmerican Coloniesafter theiremancipationand thenFranceafter theRevolutionand the rest of Europe including the European colonies. citation needed There are two forms of government, one a strong centr al government as in France and the other a local government such as the antediluvian patriarch divisions in England that is comparatively weaker but less bureaucratic.These two forms helped to shape thefederal government, first in Switzerland, then in the United States in 1776, in Canada in 1867 and in Germany in 1870 and in the twentieth century,Australia. The national States introduced the new principle of agreement orcontract. Compared to afederation, aconfederations singular weakness is that it lacksjudicial power. citation neededIn theAmerican Civil War, the contention of the Confederate States that a State couldsecedefrom the Union was untenable because of the power enjoyed by the Federal government in the executive, legislative and judiciary branches. citation needed According to professorA. V. DiceyinAn Introduction to the Study of the Law of the Constitution, the essential features of a federal constitution are a) A written supreme constitution in order to prevent dispute s between the jurisdictions of the Federal and State authorities b) A distribution of power between the Federal and State governments and c) A Supreme Court vested with the power to interpret the Constitution and enforce the law of the land remaining independent of both the executive and legislative branches. 14 editPolitical party Main articlepolitical party Apolitical partyis apolitical organizationthat typically seeks to attain and maintain political power withingovernment, usually by participating inelectoral campaigns, educational outreach or protest actions. Parties often espouse an expressedideologyor vision bolstered by a writtenplatformwith specific goals, forming acoalitionamong disparate interests. citation needed edit land politics TheUnited Nationsbuilding inNew York CityThe 20th century witnessed the outcome of two world wars and not only the rise and fall of theThird Reichbut also the rise and fall ofcommunism. The development of the atomic bombgave the United States a more rapid end to its conflict in Japan inWorld War II. Later, the development of theHydrogen bombbecame the last-ditch weapon of mass destruction. TheUnited Nationshas served as a forum for peace in a world threatened by nuclear war. The invention of nuclear and space weapons has made war unacceptable as an instrument for achieving political ends. 15Although an all-out final nuclear holocaust is out of the question for man, nuclear blackmail comes into question not only on the issue of world peace but also on the issue of national sovereignty. 16On a sunshine in 1962, the world stood still at the brink of nuclear war during the OctoberCuban missile crisisfrom the implementation ofU. S. vsU. S. S. R. nuclear blackmail policy. - editAs an academic disciplinePolitical science, the study of politics, examines the learnedness and application ofpower. 17Political scientistHarold Lasswelldefined politics as who gets what, when, and how. 18Related areas of study includepolitical philos ophy, which seeks a rationale for politics and an ethic of public behaviour,political economy, which attempts to develop understandings of the relationships between politics and the economy and the governance of the two, andpublic administration, which examines the practices of governance. citation neededThe philosopherCharles Blattberg, who has defined politics as responding to conflict with dialogue, offers an account which distinguishes political philosophies from political ideologies. 19 The first academic chair devoted to politics in the United States was the chair of history and political science atColumbia University, first occupied by Prussian emigreFrancis Lieberin 1857. 20 - editSpectraPolitical views differ on average across nations. A recreation of the InglehartWelzel Cultural Map of the World based on theWorld Values Survey. Main articlePolitical spectrum Several differentpolitical spectrumshave been proposed. editLeft-right politics Main articleLeftright politics of l ate in history, political analysts and politicians ramify politics intoleft wingandright wingpolitics, often also using the idea of center politics as a middle path of policy between the right and left.This classification is comparatively recent (it was not used byAristotleorHobbes, for instance), and dates from theFrench Revolutionera, when those members of the internal Assemblywho supported therepublic, the common people and asecular societysat on the left and supporters of themonarchy,aristocraticprivilege and the Church sat on the right. 21 The meanings behind the labels have become more complicated over the years. A particularly influential event was the publication of theCommunist ManifestobyKarl MarxandFrederick Engelsin 1848.TheManifestosuggested a course of action for aproletarianrevolution to overthrow thebourgeoissociety and abolish private property, in the belief that this would lead to aclasslessandstatelesssociety. citation needed The meaning of left-wing and right-wi ng varies considerably between different countries and at different times, but generally speaking, it can be said that the right wing often valuestraditionandsocial stratificationwhile the left wing often valuesreformandegalitarianism, with the center pursuance a balance between the two such as withsocial democracyorregulated capitalism. 22 According toNorberto Bobbio, one of the major exponents of this distinction, the Left believes in attempting to eradicate social inequality, while the Right regards most social inequality as the result of ineradicable natural inequalities, and sees attempts to enforce social equality as utopian or authoritarian. 23 Some ideologies, notablyChristian Democracy, claim to combine left and right wing politics according to Geoffrey K.Roberts and Patricia Hogwood, In terms of ideology, Christian Democracy has incorporated many of the views held by liberals, conservatives and socialists within a wider framework of moral and Christian principles. 24Movem ents which claim or formerly claimed to be above the left-right divide includeFascistTerza Posizioneeconomic politics in Italy,Gaullismin France,Peronismin Argentina, andNational Action Politicsin Mexico. citation needed editAuthoritarian-libertarian politics Authoritarianismandlibertarianismrefer to the amount of individualfreedomeach person possesses in that society relative to the state.One author describes authoritarian political systems as those where individualrightsand goals are subjugated to group goals, expectations and conformities,25while libertarians generally oppose thestateand hold theindividualassovereign. In their purest form, libertarians areanarchists, who argue for the total abolition of the state, ofPolitical partiesand ofother political entities, while the purest authoritarians are, theoretically,totalitarianswho support state control over all aspects ofsociety. citation needed For instance,classical liberalism(also known aslaissez-faireliberalism,26or, in much of the world, simplyliberalism) is a doctrine stressing individual freedom andlimited government. This includes the importance of human rationality, individualproperty rights,free markets,natural rights, the protection ofcivil liberties, constitutional limitation of government, and individual freedom from ascendency as exemplified in the writings ofJohn Locke,Adam Smith,David Hume,David Ricardo,Voltaire,Montesquieuand others.According to the libertarianInstitute for Humane Studies, the libertarian, or classical liberal, perspective is that individual well-being, prosperity, and social harmony are fostered by as much liberty as possible and as little government as necessary. 27For anarchist political philosopherL. Susan BrownLiberalism andanarchismare two political philosophies that are fundamentally concerned with individualfreedomyet differ from one another in very distinct ways. Anarchism shares with liberalism a radical commitment to individual freedom while rejecting liberalism s competitive property relations. 28 - editPolitical corruption Main articlePolitical corruption Unlimited power is apt to corrupt the minds of those who possess it. William Pitt the Elder29 Political corruptionis the use of legislated powers by government officials for illegitimate private gain. Misuse of government power for other purposes, such asrepressionof political opponents and general police brutality, is not considered political corruption.Neither are illegal acts by private persons or corporations not directly involved with the government. An illegal act by an officeholder constitutes political corruption only if the act is directly related to their official duties. citation needed Forms of corruption vary, but includebribery,extortion,cronyism,nepotism,patronage,graft, andembezzlement. While corruption may facilitatecriminal enterprisesuch asdrug trafficking,money laundering, andtrafficking, it is not restricted to these activities. citation neededThe activities tha t constitute illegal corruption differ depending on the country or jurisdiction. For instance, certain political funding practices that are legal in one place may be illegal in another. In some cases, government officials have broad or poorly defined powers, which make it difficult to distinguish between legal and illegal actions. citation needed Worldwide, bribery alone is estimated to involve over 1 trillion US dollars annually. 30A state of unrestrained